Alternative Sources of Toxicology Tests

Alternative Sources of Toxicology Tests Careful analyses of the community of insects encountered on a decomposing body, combined with knowledge of insect biology, ecology, and local environmental conditions, can often provide valuable forensic insights. These can include the estimation of time since death, movement of the remains after death, indication of antemortem injuries, and the presence of drugs or toxins. Over the past two decades, there has been an apparent increase in the incidence of drug-related deaths reported within the United States and other countries. Decedents in such cases are, in many instances, not discovered for a substantial period of time (days or weeks). The resulting state of advanced decomposition and environmental recycling typically encountered in these situations often dictates the employment of various entomological methodologies. The entomological techniques most frequently utilized are based on comprehensive analyses of the insects and other arthropods associated with the remains, their development, and patterns of succession (Goff and Flynn 1991, Goff and Odom 1987, Lord et al. 1986). The accuracy of entomological estimates in deaths involving narcotic intoxication has been subject to debate in recent years, as few available studies have explored the effects of drugs contained in decomposing tissues on fly colonization and ovipositional behavior, or on the rates of development of carrion-frequenting insects feeding on such food sources (Goff 1993). Additionally, relatively few studies have examined the effects of other tissue contaminants, such as toxins or environmental pollutants on these behaviors or the developmental patterns of the insects colonizing such tissues. In recent years, interest has also focused on the potential use of carrion-frequenting insects as alternative toxicological specimens in situations where traditional toxicological sources, such as blood, urine, or solid tissues, are unavailable or not suitable for analysis. The use of anthropophagic fly larvae (maggots) as alternate toxicological specimens is well documented in the entomological and forensic science literature (Miller et al. 1994). Detection of various toxins and controlled substances in insects found on decomposing human remains has contributed to the assessment of both cause and manner of death (Lord 1990, Goff and Lord 1994, Nolte et al. 1992). With the development of hair extraction technologies, attention has recently focused on the analysis of chitinized insect remnants that are frequently encountered with mummified and skeletonized remains (Miller et al. 1994). In such cases, the standard toxicological specimens are often absent. Studies of the use of carrion-feeding arthropods as alternative toxicological specimens, and of the impact that tissue toxins and contaminants have on the development of immature insects feeding on these substances, currently comprise the major avenues of exploration in the emerging field of entomotoxicology. The potential value of larval and adult carrion-feeding insects, and their chitinous remnants, as alternative sources of toxicological information has been clearly demonstrated. As with other emerging technologies, however, great care must be taken in the interpretation and use of such data, particularly within the forensic arena. Given recent advances in analytical procedures, it has become more practical to use even decomposed tissues for analysis (Tracqui et al. 2004). The situation may still be encountered where for various reasons there are no tissues remaining and the arthropods remain the only available material for analyses. In these instances, a qualitative analysis will be of value, but any attempt at quantitation must be viewed with skepticism. Much more research is required before the full potential of this discipline can be recognized. Forensic toxicologists qualitatively and quantitatively identify drugs and poisons which may be relevant to cause and manner of death. In most cases, toxicological specimens are collected at autopsy. Alternatively, if a body is badly decomposed, bone, hair, and insect larvae and pupae are collected and analyzed. The use of insects and insect remnants as toxicological specimens is well documented. Insect tissue or remnants (pupal cases, frass, etc.) can be used to identify drugs and toxins present in decomposing tissues. Literature to date has cited the use of arthropods as an alternative toxicological source since 1980. Beyer was one of the first to use maggots to qualitatively assess drug presence in a suspected suicide case. A body of a 22-year old female was found skeletonized except for the skin. Larvae were collected and homogenized with the proteins precipitated out of solution. Gas chromatography was used to identify a phenobarbital concentration of 100 ÃŽ ¼g/g in larval tissue. The larvae were identified as Cochliomyia macellaria (Beyer et al. 1980). Levine et al. (2000) described a case in which an unidentified male was found by a river and was decomposed and skeletonized. An empty bottle of secobarbital was found near the body. Calf muscle and maggots were sent for toxicological analysis. No substances or drugs were detected in the calf muscle, but secobarbital was identified in the maggots by electron ionization gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. In a similar study, Wilson et al. (1993) reared Calliphora vicina on human skeletal muscle from suicidal overdose victims of co-proxamol (propoxyphene and acetaminophen) and amitriptyline. Third instars were transferred to drug-free muscle or allowed to feed on drug-laden muscle for two more days prior to harvesting. The drug concentrations in the muscle food source were 0.48 ÃŽ ¼g/g amitriptyline, 0.38 ÃŽ ¼g/g nortriptyline, 0.99 ÃŽ ¼g/g propoxyhene, and 14.3 ÃŽ ¼g/g acetaminophen. The mean ratios of drug concentrations in larvae to the food source were 0.5, amitriptyline; 0.5, nortriptyline; and 0.06 for propoxyphene. In all stages no drugs or metabolites were detected in puparia, pupal cases, or adults (Wilson et al, 1993). Malathion, an organophosphate insecticide, was identified in larvae found on a decedent thought to be a suicide victim. Malathion was detected at a concentration of 2,050 ÃŽ ¼g/g of larvae in specimens collected from the decomposing remains. Malathion exhibits low toxicity in mammals, yet a high toxicity to adult insects. In this case, the maggots were developing normally despite concentrations of malathion that were toxic to rats and adult species of blowfly (Gunatilake and Goff 1989). This case illustrates the importance of studying the effects many drugs and toxins have on insect species since drugs and toxins may affect insect development, mortality rates, and PMI. The effects of various drugs and toxins to carrion-feeding insects have been investigated, but this area of study is still expanding. Tracqui et al. (2004) examined 29 necropsies in which various organic compounds (including benzodiazepines, barbiturates, antidepressants, phenothiazine, opiates, cannabinoids, meprobamate, digoxin, and nefopam) were detected in arthropod larvae sampled from human corpses. Larvae were collected from multiple sites on the cadaver, weighed, washed, and dried. The larvae were mechanically homogenized and then extracted using solid or liquid phase extraction procedures. Sample extracts were then analyzed by gas or liquid-chromatography. The results indicated that the concentrations of the drugs in insect tissues tended to be lower than those of cadaveric samples, and that concentrations varied between anatomic sites (i.e. within anatomic sites when larvae were grouped according to their site of sampling). Tracqui et al. (2004) also found only weak correlat ions between the concentrations of drugs in biofluids at the time of death and those in the larvae sampled from the cadaver at a later time. Goff has conducted a number of entomotoxicology experiments with various drugs (Goff et al. 1989, Goff et al. 1991, Goff et al. 1992, Goff et al. 1993, Goff et al. 1994). When Goff did his studies he administered the drug to a living animal. He did this so that known and reproducible concentrations of drugs and metabolites in animal tissue could be used to approximate amounts normally encountered in human fatal overdoses. Hà ©douin et al. (1999) established concentrations of morphine in an animal model before rearing larvae on tissues. Morphine, a metabolite of heroin, was injected intravenously into rabbits. The kinetics of morphine elimination from blood after a single intravenous injection of morphine and the concentrations of morphine in tissues following a continuous perfusion were established. Morphine concentrations were determined using radioimmunoassay techniques. The rabbits that received a single injection received 2 mg/kg of morphine hydrochloride. Three rabbits received 2 mg/kg of body weight of morphine hydrochloride per hour for a period of 3 h using a continuous perfusion through a plastic catheter in the ear. Results from the continuous perfusion showed that the concentrations of morphine differed according to the organ analyzed, but were reproducible for organs between animals. This study permitted known and reproducible concentrations of morphine in the rabbit to be used as a subst rate for rearing of larvae in entomological studies. Goff used rabbits in his entomotoxicological studies of cocaine and heroin on Boettcherisca peregrina (Goff et al. 1989, Goff et al. 1991). The rabbits in the heroin study were given 6, 12, 18, and 24 mg of heroin by cardiac puncture. Boettcherisca peregrina were allowed to feed and develop on liver tissue containing heroin. From hours 18 to 96, larvae feeding on liver tissue containing heroin developed more rapidly than those feeding on the liver from the control. Time required for pupation was also greater for larvae that fed on tissue from heroin dosed rabbits than for the control larvae. The rates of development were sufficient to alter PMI estimates based on larval development by up to 29 hours (Goff et al. 1991). In a similar study, three domestic rabbits received dosages of 35, 69, and 137 mg cocaine in 5 mL saline via cardiac puncture in the cocaine study. The dosages represent one-half the LD50, the normal LD50, and twice the LD50. Boettcherisca peregrina were allowed to feed and develop on tissues containing cocaine. From hours 30 to 70, larvae developed more rapidly on tissue containing cocaine from rabbits injected with 69 mg and 137 mg of cocaine than on tissue from rabbits injected with 35 mg of cocaine or no cocaine. Total development times required for pupation and adult eclosion were also shortened. Differences between larvae developing on cocaine-dosed rabbit tissue compared to a control were sufficient to alter PMI estimates based on larval development in decomposing human tissues by up to 24 h (Goff et al. 1989). Goffs results indicate that an opiate (e.g., heroin) and a stimulant drug (e.g., cocaine) can both increase the rate of development in the Boettcherisca peregrina (Goff et al. 1989, Goff et al. 1991). Bourel et al. (1999b) administered morphine chlorhydrate to three rabbits each at a different concentration. The three concentrations were 12.5, 25.0 and 50.0 mg/h of morphine chlorhydrate via ear perfusion. A fourth rabbit was used as a control. Following administration of the drug, rabbits were sacrificed and 400 eggs of Lucilia sericata were placed in the eyes, nostrils, and mouth of each rabbit. Larvae were sampled daily to determine growth rate and weight. Puparia and emerging adults were also sampled. In this study, the larvae reared on the control and the rabbits that received 12.5 and 25 mg/h of morphine developed at similar rates from hours 41 to 69, while larvae reared on the carcass given 50.0 mg/h of morphine developed at a slower rate. From hour 91 to 165, the larvae from carcasses that received 12.5 and 50.0 mg/h developed at the same rate, which was slower than the control colony. Overall, the effects of morphine appear to be dose dependent as the larvae feeding on the rabbit that received the greatest dosage were the slowest to develop. Based on results from this study, between hours 91 and 165 estimations of larval age based on total length can be significantly in error if the presence of morphine in tissues is not considered. The error can be as great as 24 h for Lucilia sericata larvae measuring from 8 to 14 mm total length. In another case Bourel et al. (2001) used approximately 100 larvae of L. sericata reared on seven 250 g portions of minced beef combined with morphine hydrochloride solutions. After egg hatch, 10 specimens of second instar, third instar, post-feeding third instar and pupae were sampled and immediately frozen. After adults emerged, they were kept in a jar until they died and desiccated. Samples were homogenized, centrifuged, and the supernatant analyzed for morphine content using a specific radioimmunoassay. Concentrations of morphine were high in second and third instar larvae, almost proportional to concentrations in minced meat, but almost no morphine was detected in pupae. The results indicate that larvae excrete the drug during the post-feeding stage. A quantity of morphine is sequestered in the cuticle of pupae, but at minute concentrations. Morphine is sequestered in the cuticle during larval growth and in the formation of puparia (Bourel et al. 2001). Elimination of drugs or toxins prior to metamorphosis has been shown in other studies. Sadler et al. (1995) was able to detect trimipramine, trazodone, and temazepam, in the larvae of Calliphora vicina, but was unable to detect the drugs in the pupae. The fact that drugs do not bioaccumulate throughout the life of the larvae suggests that elimination mechanisms are present. Drug concentrations decreased when larvae were taken from drug laden meat and placed on drug free meat. The results of these studies indicate the importance of collecting larvae for toxicological analysis from those feeding actively on a corpse. Introna et al. (1990) reared Calliphora vicina larvae on liver specimens from 40 cases in which cause of death had been determined to be opiate intoxication. Analysis of larvae and liver for opiates (morphine) was accomplished by radioimmunoassay. The concentration of opiates for all cases was found to range from 8 to 1,208 ÃŽ ¼g/kg for larvae and 26 to 1,769 ÃŽ ¼g/kg for the liver specimens. A significant difference was found between the opiate liver and larval concentrations. Goff and Lord (1994) reviewed various studies in entomotoxicology and concluded that entomotoxicological testing was essential to accurate forensic entomology conclusions. Data indicating the presence of drugs allow for corrections to the data in cases when drugs affect insect development. Future trends in forensic entomology The precise estimation of PMI is the most important goal  of forensic entomology by refining the techniques used. Developmental and succession data, consideration of a  greater number of geographical regions and a range of  death scene scenarios are essential. Moreover there are  several parameters which need further attention. It is important to consider factors that might alter the  time of oviposition, such as covering corpses with  branches or tight wrapping with blankets, carpets or  plastic bags, and indoor placement, because these factors  may delay initial oviposition (Higley and Haskell 2001). Seasonal influences, such as cold and rainy weather, may  inhibit or even prevent fly activity and delay oviposition  (Erzinclioglu 1996). However, Faucherre et al. (1999)  observed flying as well as ovipositing Calliphora vicina  under extreme conditions in the Swiss Alps, colonizing a  corpse in a 10-m deep cave at a temperature of about 5_C. The generally accepted assumption that activity of  necrophagous flies ceases below an air temperature of  10_C (Williams 1984) or even 12_C (Smith 1986;  Erzinclioglu 1996) may be questionable (see also Deonier  1940; Nuorteva 1965). However, the case described by  Faucherre et al. (1999) occurred at an altitude of 1,260 m  and therefore a cold-adapted population of C. vicina may  have been involved. Blowflies usually show peaks of oviposition activity in  the early afternoon (Nuorteva 1959a; Baumgartner and  Greeenberg 1984, 1985; Greenberg 1990). These insects  are not active at night and generally do not lay eggs  during nighttime (Greenberg 1985). A postmortem interval  estimation based on that assumption has to consider  the possibility that a corpse which was found about noon  and was infested by recently hatched maggots, could have  been deposited there in the late evening of the previous  day. Hence, fly eggs detected on a corpse during the night  would lead to the conclusion that death occurred during  the previous day or earlier (Nuorteva 1977). Greenberg  (1990) presented the first experimental evidence of  nocturnal oviposition by three forensically important  blow flies, Calliphora vicina, Phormia regina and Lucilia  (Phaenicia) sericata. On the other hand, Tessmer et al.  (1995) reported that blowflies fail to lay eggs at night  bot h in urban (with lighting) and rural dark habitats. However, Singh and Bharti (2001) supported the findings  of Greenberg (1990). Hence nocturnal oviposition is a  possibility and should be taken into consideration. Diapause, the period during which growth and development  of insects is suspended, is still a challenge for the  forensic entomologist (see also Ames and Turner 2003). Depending on the insect taxa, the major influences on  larvae or pupae are photoperiod and temperature. Declining  day length and/or decreasing temperatures indicate  approaching winter and induce diapause, preventing  development under unfavourable environmental conditions. In many forensically important blowflies, diapause  is under maternal control and exposure of females to short  day lengths induces diapause in the offspring (Vinogradova  1991). Species with a large geographical range  have to face changes in day length throughout the year. The critical day length which induces diapause will be  longer in populations from a northern range than in  southern populations (McWatters and Saunders 1998). The forensic entomologist working in a temperate region  investigating a sample of dead maggots collected from a  corpse during late September has to consider the possibility  that these maggots had already entered diapause. Besides day length, temperature may also influence the  incidence of diapause (Vinogradova and Zinovjeva 1972). Unlike photoperiod, temperature is not a noise-free signal,  as it is subject to considerable variation both within and  between years (McWatters and Saunders 1998). Increasing  constant temperature is known to reduce the incidence  of diapause in forensically important Dipteran species,  such as Liopygia argyrostoma (Saunders 1975), Protophormia  terraenovae (Vinogradova 1986) and Calliphora  vicina (McWatters and Saunders 1998). The duration of diapause is another important parameter. McWatters and Saunders (1998) showed that in C. vicina kept at temperatures of 15_C and 20_C, respectively,  diapause was terminated in most larvae within  30 days. However, the diapause ended earlier in larvae  whose parents had been kept at 20_C than those whose  parents had been kept at 15_C. These observations should  be a caveat for the forensic entomologist and points to the  need for further studies on other species. Competition may affect development and growth of  the larvae. Smith and Wall (1997a, 1997b) presented data  which indicate that the larvae of Lucilia sericata in  carcasses experience significant levels of competition and that the intensity of this competition may be sufficient to  reduce the numbers of adult L. sericata able to emerge  successfully. Reiter (1984), Smith (1986) and Erzinclioglu (1990)  pointed to another factor which could complicate the  estimation of the postmortem interval-precocious egg  development in flies. In some female flies, eggs may be  retained in the oviduct, having been fertilized as they pass  the spermathecal ducts in advance of the act of oviposition (Wells and King 2001). In cases where a suitable  oviposition site is not available, the eggs may remain  inside the fly until they have completed embryonic development. It has been reported for several species of the tribe Calliphorini, including the forensically important  Calliphora vicina, that the larva hatches from such eggs  immediately following oviposition (Erzinclioglu 1990;  Wells and King 2001). Precocious eggs are more likely to  be found in bluebottles (Calliphora spp.) than in other  lineages of carrion-feeding blowflies and the proportion  of wild flies carrying an egg that is about to hatch can be  quite high (Wells and King 2001). Parasitoid larvae feed exclusively on other arthropods,  mainly insects, resulting in the death of the parasitoids  host (Godfray 1994). The majority of parasitoids are  either members of the order Hymenoptera or Diptera,  representing an extremely diverse group and constituting  about 8.5% of all described insects (LaSalle and Gauld  1991; Godfray 1994). They also attack necrophagous taxa  and therefore could appear on carrion. Fabritius and  Klunker (1991) listed 83 parasitoid species, mainly  wasps, which attack the larval and pupal stages of  synanthropic Diptera in Europe. There are few reports on  the use of parasitoids in forensic entomology (Smith  1986; Haskell et al. 1997; Amendt et al. 2000; Anderson  and Cervenka 2002; Grassberger and Frank 2003b). The  life-cycles of the common parasitoid species are known  (e.g. Geden 1997) and, even if the adults have already  emerged and left the host, the pupal exuviae of the  parasitic wasps can be identified for a long time  afterwards (Geden et al. 1998; Carlson et al. 1999). The  parasitoid developmental times can then be calculated and  added to the time of development of the blowfly host. Pupal parasitoids of blowflies may play an especially  important role in the estimation of the postmortem period  because their time of attack is often restricted to a small,  well-defined window of time at the beginning of the pupal  development of the host insect (Anderson and Cervenka  2002). An example of the practical application of these  wasps involved a case where the early colonizers,  individuals of the blowfly Protophormia terraenovae,  had finished their development and already left the scene  but adults of the parasitoid Nasonia vitripennis (Hymenoptera:  Pteromalidae) were just about to emerge. These  wasps need, at a constant temperature of 25_C, 350  accumulated degree days, equating to about 14 days, to  reach adulthood (Whiting 1967; Grassberger and Frank  2003b). By contrast the host P. terraenovae needs about  9 days at this temperature to reach the stage appropriate  for the parasitoids oviposition (Marchenko 2001; Grassberger  a nd Reiter 2002a). It can therefore be assumed that  the flies had access to the body for at least about 23 days  before the corpse was found. The calculation of developmental  times for the host and the parasitoid allowed the  estimation of a greater minimum postmortem interval  than the estimated development time of Protophormia  terraenovae alone. This enabled the criminal investigators  to disprove the testimony of a witness who claimed that  he had seen the victim alive 20 days before the corpse was  found. However, when thinking about the potential  influence, especially of larval parasitoids, it is important  to remember that this specialized group might also create  significant problems for forensic entomology. Holdaway  and Evans (1930) described, for example, the change in  developmental times for Lucilia sericata after the attack  of its parasitoid Alysia manducator, which resulted in  premature pupariation. The role of freshwater and marine fauna in forensic  investigations has received very little attention (Payne  and King 1972; Nuorteva et al. 1974; Goff and Odom  1987; Haskell et al 1989; Catts and Goff 1992; Vance et  al. 1995; Sorg et al. 1997; Davis and Goff 2000). Knowledge about the role of aquatic arthropods during  decomposition is still scanty (Keiper et al. 1997;  Tomberlin and Adler 1998; Hobischak and Anderson  1999, 2002; Anderson 2001; Merrit and Wallace 2001;  Anderson and Hobischak 2004). Compared with terrestrial  habitats, decomposition in an aquatic environment is  completely different. It occurs at a rate roughly half that  of decomposition on land, mainly due to the prevention of  insect activity and cooler temperatures (Knight 1991). Merrit and Wallace (2001) have distinguished six decompositional  stages ranging from submerged fresh,  floating decay to sunken remains. Aquatic insects of  forensic importance belong to the Ephemeroptera (mayflies),  Trichoptera (caddis flies) and Diptera (true flies);  the latter are mainly represented by Chironomidae  (midges) and Simuliidae (black flies). However, these  insects, unlike their terrestrial counterparts, are not  obligatory saprophages, but instead use the submerged  carrion both as a food source and a breeding site. The use of these insects for estimating the time of death is  therefore more difficult and depends on the season and on  other conditions of the aquatic systems. No successional  insect model exists which describes the different waves of  colonization of a corpse in aquatic habitats (Merrit and  Wallace 2001). Finally, forensic entomology may help in investigations  dealing with living, but ill, people by revealing  neglect. The occurrence of maggots in the wounds or  natural orifices of living persons may indicate such a  neglect. Estimating the age of these maggots can reveal  how long the neglect has been happening (Benecke 2003).

Friar Laurence and the Nurse Essay

The Nurse and Friar Laurence have a great influence on the outcome of Shakespeare’s famous play, Romeo and Juliet. Their words and actions have an enourmous impact on the two main characters. The Friar acts as Romeo’s friend, philosopher, and guide. This is a parallel role to the Nurse who advises Juliet. They continuously work together to find ways for the young adults to marry in hopes of uniting the two and bringing peace to Verona. Their roles as parent figures compel them to help the two adolescents marry. The Nurse and Friar Laurence are kind and meaningful characters who positively contribute to the alliance and temporary happiness of Romeo and Juliet. The Friar elicits the emotions in Romeo that are usually reserved for a father. He is ready with a plan to help the secretly impassioned lovers. â€Å"But come on, inconsistent young man, come with me. I’ll help you with your secret wedding. This marriage may be lucky enough to turn the hatred between your families†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He feels able to bring the years of feuding between the Montagues and the Capulets to an end by helping Romeo and Juliet to marry. The Nurse is a trusted family servant to Lord Capulet in Verona and she maintains an active voice in their family affairs. Lady Capulet involves the Nurse in her discussion with Juliet about her possible marriage to Paris. She has been with the Capulet family for at least fourteen years, the entirety of Juliet’s life. The Nurse had a daughter, Susan, born on the same exact day as Juliet. Susan died, and since her death the Nurse has taken care of Juliet and become more like a mother to her than Lady Capulet. The Nurse was actually Juliet’s wet nurse, and it is proven that a bond between a baby and one who feeds it is very strong. She uses many terms of endearment; when calling on Juliet: â€Å"What, lamb? What ladybird?† When Juliet speaks to her mother she speaks very formally, calling her â€Å"madam.† The conversation between Juliet and her mother is stilted and proper, whereas the Nurse is very open with her opinions, advice, and feelings with Juliet. When talking about Paris, she talks like a schoolgirl gossiping about Paris’ looks: â€Å"A man, young lady! Lady such a man as all the world – why, he’s a man of wax.† It is the Nurse who tells Juliet that Romeo has been banished after killing Tybalt. â€Å"Tybalt is gone, and Romeo banished; Romeo that kill’d him, he is banished.† The Nurse is the only guest at Romeo and Juliet’s wedding and it is Friar Laurence who marries them. Each of these characters, therefore, has a central role in the play. It is Friar Laurence who gives Juliet the sleeping draught to be used to convince her famnily that she is dead. His letter to Romeo goes missing and this is key to Romeo’s suicide when he too believes that Juliet has taken her own life. It is the Nurse who finds Juliet’s body. The two older characters whose words and actions are most central to the play, then, are the Nurse – a positive maternal role model to Juliet – and Friar Laurence – a positive paternal role model to Romeo.

Poetry Analysis Essay

Lorna Dee Cervantes’ poem, â€Å"Poema para los Californios Muertos† (â€Å"Poem for the Dead Californios†), is a commentary on what happened to the original inhabitants of California when California was still Mexico, and an address to the speaker’s dead ancestors. Utilizing a unique dynamic, consistently alternating between Spanish and English, Cervantes accurately represents the fear, hatred, and humility experienced by the â€Å"Californios† through rhythm, arrangement, tone, and most importantly, through use of language. Many times readers do not grasp a strong sense of the meaning or provocation of a poem simply through its title. However, the title â€Å"Poema para los Californios Muertos†, translated to â€Å"Poem from the dead Californios†, enables readers to immediately understand that this poem addresses the injustice experienced by California’s original inhabitants at the hands of the Americans who invaded it and claimed it as their own. This particular poem consists of four parts and two main areas of focus. One is the speaker’s interpretation of present-day California, which she expounds upon in the first and forth parts, and her present thought process occurring in the second and third parts, in which she addresses her ancestors and her own pain. Though each part holds its own significance and brings its own unique element to the poem, they are correlated heavily by the tone of aggression and rage portrayed by the reader. In the first part of the poem, in which the speaker is addressing the state of this modern California and the hatred she feels for the people who have created it, Cervantes uses several words such as â€Å"cuts†, â€Å"cesarean†, â€Å"fertile†, â€Å"bastard†, and â€Å"raped† to portray a feeling of a corrupted innocence. California represents this child that has been stolen from â€Å"los madres† (the mothers) and the â€Å"husbands de la tierra, tierra la madre† (husbands of mother earth). It is not the land’s fault that it has been lost, but it is nevertheless darkened by its new inhabitants and the memory of degradation and pain of her ancestors. The forth part brings forth a new type of diction with words such as â€Å"bitter antiques† and â€Å"remnants† to represent that this is all that remains of California’s original people, and in the final lines, â€Å"pungent odor of crushed eucalyptus† and â€Å"the pure scent of rage† paint for us an entirely different image than any of the other parts. Smell is an extremely powerful sense, and by using these phrases with ghastly connotations, Cervantes increases the level of guilt and sympathy felt by the reader. A strong irony in the forth part consists of coupling beautiful things such as a blue jay and crushed eucalyptus, which should connote for us happiness, with pungent odors and shrieking, which steal that false sense of happiness. Furthermore, this irony creates for readers their own personal sense of loss by imagining something so happy as a blue jay making a horrific shriek or of something so sweet as eucalyptus smelling rotten. Through this, Cervantes has distributed to her readers some of the pain felt by the Mexican people. The middle of the poem, consisting of parts two and three, make up the second focal point of the poem, in which the speaker addresses her ancestors, her own anguish concerning the loss of California as it once was, and reaches the climax of the poem in which she reveals herself as the â€Å"hija pobrecita† (Poor daughter) cursing the ghosts of the white people who stole California. The only hint of vulnerability we perceive from the speaker is found within the second and third parts. She is desperate for peace and longing to make known her ancestors memories. The most important aspect that differentiates this poem from many others is the dramatic use of dual language. Because many readers must use the translated notes to understand the Spanish portions of the poem, it requires them to deeply consider the speaker’s connotations. Many readers will not realize Cervantes’ intentional placement of the Spanish portions. Stanzas one, two, and three begin in English and end in Spanish. However, stanza four begins in English and ends in English with only one line in the middle consisting of Spanish. Though it is overlooked, this tactic offers a path upon which the subconscious may embark. To the speaker, California has been overrun and forever changed by the white people, represented by English. The single Spanish line is a representation of the speaker herself and exemplifies how truly lost she feels in this place. â€Å"Poema para los Californios Muertos† is a prime example of the importance of a dynamic use of language and the strength it brings to a poem when utilized to its full potential.

A Guide to Saying Aunt in Chinese

There are many terms for aunt in Chinese depending on whether the aunt is on the mothers side, fathers side, the eldest aunt, or the youngest aunt. Also, each region in China has its own way of saying aunt. Across the board, the most common term for aunt in Chinese is  Ã©Ëœ ¿Ã¥ § ¨ (Ä  yà ­). Pronunciation   The Chinese term for aunt or auntie is composed of two characters: é˜ ¿Ã¥ § ¨. The pinyin for the first character é˜ ¿ is Ä . Thus, é˜ ¿ is pronounced in the 1st tone. The pinyin for the second character Ã¥ § ¨ is yà ­. That means Ã¥ § ¨ is pronounced in the 2nd tone. In terms of  tones,  Ã©Ëœ ¿Ã¥ § ¨ can also be referred to as a1 yi2. Term Use é˜ ¿Ã¥ § ¨ (Ä  yà ­) is a general term that can be used to refer to  a family member, but it can also refer to people outside of the family. While it is considered polite to formally address female acquaintances as Miss or Mrs. in America, Chinese culture errs on the more familiar side. When addressing friends of parents, parents of friends, or elder females acquaintances in general, it is common to call them é˜ ¿Ã¥ § ¨ (Ä  yà ­).  In that way, this term is akin in auntie in English. Different Family Members As mentioned earlier, there are many ways to say aunt in Chinese depending on many factors. Here is a short breakdown of different terms for aunt in Mandarin Chinese. Ã¥ §â€˜Ã¥ §â€˜ (gÃ… «gu):  fathers sisterÃ¥ © ¶Ã¥ © ¶ (shÄ›nshen):  fathers brothers wifeÃ¥ § ¨Ã¥ ª ½ (traditional) /  Ã¥ § ¨Ã¥ ¦Ë† (simplified) (yà ­mÄ ):  mothers sister舅å ª ½ (traditional) /  Ã¨Ë†â€¦Ã¥ ¦Ë† (simplified) (jià ¹mÄ ):  mothers brothers wife Sentence Examples Using  Ã„€yà ­ Ä€yà ­ là ¡i le!é˜ ¿Ã¥ § ¨Ã¤ ¾â€ Ã¤ ºâ€ ! (traditional Chinese)é˜ ¿Ã¥ § ¨Ã¦  ¥Ã¤ ºâ€ ! (simplified Chinese)Auntie is here! TÄ  shà ¬ bà ¹shà ¬ nÇ  de Ä yà ­?Ã¥ ¥ ¹Ã¦Ëœ ¯Ã¤ ¸ Ã¦Ëœ ¯Ã¤ ½  Ã§Å¡â€žÃ©Ëœ ¿Ã¥ § ¨(both traditional and simplified Chinese)Is she your aunt? Ä€yà ­ hÇŽo!é˜ ¿Ã¥ § ¨Ã¥ ¥ ½! (both traditional and simplified Chinese)Hi, Auntie!

The Success Of Alexander The Great - 1374 Words

Alexander the Great is one of the most successful military commanders of all time. Some may attribute Alexander’s success to his inheritance of the great Macedonian kingdom and military from his father, Philip II. Although there is no doubt that this timely inheritance was a key factor in his success, it was his military skills and generalship that gave him the ability to effectively utilize the groundwork laid by his father. In order to fully understand the success of Alexander, we must first look back to the influence and success of his father, Philip II. Greece had been unified under the League of Corinth, so when Alexander assumed the throne, he did not need to worry about any fighting to the south. Philip took the small and insignificant country of Macedon and turned it into one of the greatest military powers in the ancient world. When Philip was assassinated, Alexander inherited an extremely skilled and modernized army he could use to make his father’s dream of defeating the Persians come true (Martin, Ancient Greece p.221). Philip’s reforms to the Macedonian army include reorganizing the structure and the use of troops and improving weaponry and tactics (Potter, Lecture 13 March 2015). The Macedonian phalanx was a great improvement over the hoplite phalanx used in Greek warfare because of two reasons. Well-trained soldiers, known as phalangite, wore lighter armor that enabled them to move quicker and utilize their new, longer spears known as sarissa, whichShow MoreRelatedAlexander The Greats Influence On The World1431 Words   |  6 PagesAlexander the Great Occasionally history shows that the world does not have many people that could be entered in the history. And Alexander the Great was one of these people. During his childhood Alexander had great teachers who taught him how to use and how to choose great politics, diplomacy and, how to win the war if that day would come. For many years Alexander the Great studied how to control everything and how to be ready to do anything that might be needed. At the age of sixteen he had toRead MoreWhat was so Great About Alexander the Great?810 Words   |  3 Pages Alexander the Great, also known as Alexander III of Macedon, was born in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedonia in 356 BC and was handed down his reign when his father, Phillip II was murdered in 336 BC by his bodyguard. His father was out most of the time trying to extend his kingdom therefore Alexander was left with his mother, Olympias, who was very emotionally close to her son and had a tendency to spoil him. Alexander was hand ed down a trained, strong and powerful army with excellent generalsRead MoreAlexander the Great Essay1747 Words   |  7 PagesAlexander the Great, son of King Philip II of Macedonia, underwent a journey of overwhelming odds. Alexander led his army through multiple victories across the Persian territories of Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt without the agony of a single defeat. A noteworthy battle of Alexander was the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 B.C.E. The Battle of Gaugamela is significant because it ended Darius’s rule over Persia. [new par.] There are several forces and factors that contribute in making Alexander the GreatRead MoreAlexander the Great Essay1358 Words   |  6 Pagesman named Alexander III of Macedon or more commonly known as, Alexander the Great. His father, King Phillip II, took the throne of Macedonia in 359 B.C.E and was able to turn Macedonia into the strongest military power in the entire Greek world. 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As he travelled he took along with him the morals and customs ofRead MoreAlexander II And Alexander The Great1642 Words   |  7 Pagessomeone who is good at planning tactics; Philip II and Alexander the Great would not fall under this name because they were not good at planning tactics, they were disputed to be the best at planning them. Alexander III the Great was born in 356 BC in the capital of Macedonia; Pella. Growing up Alexander watched his father turn Macedonia into a great military power . Philip II was the first to create an unstoppable Macedonian army and his son Alexander would further exp and the efficiency and power ofRead MoreCaesar, Hannibal, and Alexander the Great Essay1269 Words   |  6 PagesIt was the leadership of Caesar, Alexander, and Hannibal that heavily influenced the Roman society, the ancient world, and the western civilization. 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The Persian empire was taken overRead MoreMacedonian Culture And Greek Culture1442 Words   |  6 Pagessimilar to the Greek culture. Certainly, both of those cultures are not identical; they do have differences, yet by looking at the women’s independent role and freedom among the society and the military success of those cultures, it is clear that both of them resemble. For instance, Alexander the Great thought that he was a descendant of a Greek God and always wanted to show how Greek he was. This might be the reason why the Macedonian culture is very similar to the Greek culture. In both culturesRead MoreThe Victory Of The Battle Of Issus, And The Conquering Of Tyre922 Words   |  4 PagesHowever, the accuracy of the film takes a turn when transitioning from Alexander taking over gaining more power and taking over the thrown and the battle of Gaugamela. Covering Alexander’s accomplishments concerning the defeat of the rebellion of Thebes, the battle of Issus, and the conquering of Tyre would have drastically increased the running time of the film, but these events are important to understanding Alexander’s overall triumph. Before his father, Philip, died a Greek city called Thebes

What Every Body Is Saying About College Paper Writers Is Wrong and Why

What Every Body Is Saying About College Paper Writers Is Wrong and Why Want to Know More About College Paper Writers? If you chance to be writing a paper for a sociology class, for example, think of the reason why a sociologist would be considering your topic and precisely what methods (or kinds of research) he or she'd utilize to research the topic, Boyd stated. What's a thesis staement. It is a statement that should appear in the introduction of a research paper. At some point in the conclusion, it should be restated. For that reason, it's important for one to understand how to write a college research paper so that it's not a daunting task anymore. Since the purpose of a research paper is to do research, the vast majority of the writer's opinions ought to be backed up by a specialist. When considering research paper tips for college, you ought to avoid controversial and sensational topics and the topics which are too technical. 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Experimental & Numerical Study Of Lift with Airfoil Diagram

Question: Describe about the Experimental and Numerical Study of Lift and Drag of an Airfoil. Answer: Introduction A number of research efforts have been inclined towards the airfoil drag and lift coefficients using a cross flow fan at varying boundary parameters by numerical and experiment means. Several experiments and numerical studies carried out reveal that many factors influence the value obtained for the drag and lift coefficients. As discussed in the paper, airfoil creates a great lift at lowest frontward velocities and reflects a great potential for both the scenarios of vertical landing and takeoff and that of quick landing and takeoff. Besides, the experimental results obtained reveal that the pitching moment and lift coefficients of the airfoil profile rise and the momentous drag coefficient declines as the rotational velocity of the airfoil fan declines. This means that in aeromechanics, the pitching moment constant improvement depicts that the aircraft gathers a relatively improved stability at comparatively superior rotational velocities. Significance of the Problem It is important to understand the parameters that govern the landing and takeoff of an aircraft in the modern aircraft mechanics and design. The study on drag and lift is crucial in aerodynamics today since it helps in understanding the pressure distribution on the airfoil profile. The information helps in the design of the airfoil fan and the determination of the appropriate pitching moment and the desired airfoil velocity. Literature Review Several researchers have undertaken to examine on the experimental and numerical study of drag and lift of an airfoil critically. Different researchers come up with different findings on the topic. To start with, Ã… ¾ahin and Acir (2015) of the Department of Energy Systems Engineering conducted an experiment at the Faculty of Technology, in the University of Gazi aimed at investigating the NACA 0015 transient dynamics, and carried out their measurements in an open wind tunnel. The parameters of the experiment were such that the wind velocity interval ranged between 3.1 and 28 m/s with an estimated cross-section of 30 cm by 30 cm m and a tunnel test of approximately 400 cm long. The diagram below shows the drag and lift of airfoil. As demonstrated in the figure, there are 4 major forces that act on the aircraft while in the air. In the case of a powered aircraft, there is a thrust force acting on the aircraft. The other forces operating on the aircraft include the weight of the aircraft, lift, and drag. However, the most important forces for analysis are drag and lift. The aircraft wing is the main contributor to the resultant drag and lift owing to the streamline shape of the airfoil. The streamline shape of the airfoil assists in providing great lift values at minimum drag for specified flight conditions. In addition, the wings of the conventional aircraft employ moving surfaces such as slats and flaps in most cases to adapt to the varying prevailing conditions. The other specifications of the NACA 0015 were 100 mm for both the spanwise length and the chord length. With a wind velocity of 10 meter per second and an attack angle in the range of 0 and 20 degrees, the experimental results showed that for an attack angle of 16 degrees, the highest drag and lift coefficients were 0.15 and 0.75 respectively. The optimum Cl/Cd ratio was registered at 8 degrees. The methods employed in estimating the non-dimensional coefficients were Drag coefficient . (1) (Askari Shojaeefard, 2012) Lift coefficient (2) (Dedeic, 2014) Where L is the lift, D is the drag, Cl is the lift coefficient, Cd is the drag coefficient, c is the chord length of the airfoil, V is the wind velocity, is the air density. The graphs below shows a comparison of the results obtained from this experiment with the numerical values. Figure 3Cl/Cd ratio for different attack angles Some important terms and concepts help in the determination of the lift and drag of the airfoil. In a more general sense, an airfoil has both a trailing edge and a leading edge that is basically designed with variant bottom and top surface curvatures to accelerate the flow that results from the induced pressure gradient generating a lift. The chord of the airfoil is the line that connects the trailing edge and the leading edge. In addition, a camber is the greatest distance covered between the chord and the surface of the airfoil as outlined in its profile. The airfoils chord length is the maximum length of the airfoil. Moreover, the attack angle of the airfoil is essentially the angle that is subtended between the relative fluid flow direction and the chord in a horizontal. Moreau, Jolibois, and Benard (2009) undertook a similar research using NACA 0015 airfoil model that was used by Ã… ¾ahin and Acir (2015) by mounting a Dielectric Barrier Discharge. In their experiment, they investigated the impact of both unsteady and steady drag and lift coefficient actuations using force measurements that were time-averaged. They found out that it is possible to delay the stall regime by 1 or 2 degrees while at the same time decreasing the drag coefficient. In order to investigate the stall flutter at minimum Reynolds numbers, Bhat and Govardhan (2013) conducted an experiment using a NACA 0012 airfoil model. The diagram below shows the wind blades of the wind turbine and the lift and drag. The flow fields and forces were measured by oscillating the airfoil at reduced Reynolds numbers of approximately 104. The airfoil underwent pitch oscillations with small amplitudes, , with great m known as angle of attack at varying frequencies, f. Energy transfer from the flow to the airfoil were computed by directly measuring the varying loads on the airfoil during oscillation. The researchers established that at low chord length (low Reynolds number), there was stall flutter and airfoil excitation. Wang, Ingham, Ma, Pourkashanian, and Tao (2010) also conducted a similar experiment using NACA 0012 model of airfoil by investigating the dynamic stall scenario in a 2D computational perspective at reduced Reynolds number of approximately 105. The researchers employed Computational Fluid Dynamics for the simulation with varying amplitudes, mean angles of oscillation, and frequencies in a two-set oscillating system. Dimchev (2012) conducted another study on the propellers mounted with wingtip with a UAV design and low aspect ratio. The study was conducted under a wind velocity ranging from 15 and 35 m/s and a 20 degrees proper blade angle. The results indicated that for a 10 degrees angle of attack, the there was an increase in the lift coefficient Cl from 0.34 to 0.46. On the contrary, there was a decrease of the drag coefficient Cd from -0.013 to -0.14. The figure below shows the flow profile of the drag and lift. Krogstad and Lund (2011) carried out a numerical and experimental analysis of a model turbine performance using a diameter of 90 cm for the model. The researchers used a S826 airfoil profile and used a Blade Element Theory to lay down the geometry. They then experimentally tested their design model and estimated the tip ratio at 6 and a peak power coefficient Cp at 0.448. A turbulence model known as - was used to undertake numerical calculations by applying a Computational Fluid Dynamics 3D simulation model. Evaluation and analysis of the findings From the literature analysis, it can be seen that the numerical and experimental results of the drug and lift of an airfoil vary depending on so many parameters. For instance, the experiments conducted under open tunnel as in the case of NACA 0015 reflect different values of the lift and drug constants. In addition, the area of cross section of the wind tunnel plays an imperative role in the value of the lift and drug coefficient obtained in an experimental setup. The other parameters that determine the value of the lift and drug coefficient include the velocity of the wind. Better results were obtained within the range of 20 and 30 m/s as the optimum wind speed. Moreover, the values obtained from the experiments indicate that an ideal attack angle averages at 16 degrees. The best experimental results obtained for the drag and lift coefficients vary between 0.15 and 0.75 respectively. In addition, the optimal Cl/Cd ratio that was recorded from the experiments is 8 degrees. The studies conducted by Tang, Zhang, Peng, and Liu (2012) suggest that airfoil develops a high lift at minimum forward velocities and demonstrates an exceptional potential for both the scenarios of upward takeoff and landing and that of fast takeoff and landing. As seen in most of the experiments, the pitching moment and lift constants of the airfoil rise and the resultant drag coefficient declines as the airfoil fan revolutionary velocity decreases. In aerodynamics, the pitching moment constant improvement shows that the aircraft achieves greater stability at elevated rotational velocities. Lombardi, Salvetti, and Pinelli, (2000) further highlight that experiments demonstrate that the streamline coefficients decline as the Reynolds number declines free stream. Besides, the flow area over the airfoil can best be been examined using the computational fluid dynamics approach and then comparing the results with the investigational results obtained. In most cases, the numerical results are in congruence with the values obtained in the experiments. Yu (2012) further establish that the rotational velocity of the airfoil does not affect the coefficient of skin resistance on the bottom wall of the airfoil. However, the upper surface of the foil, particularly the interior of the casing is greatly affected by the fan velocity. This also shows a rise in the Reynolds number on the two surfaces of the airfoil. Manolesos and Voutsinas (2016) cite that a close examination of the numerical method demonstrates that the difference between the inert pressure of the two airfoil surfaces lead to an increase in the rotational velocity. This leads to greater lift coefficients at a higher fan velocity, and a corresponding increase in the Reynolds number that corresponds to the improvement of the aeromechanic forces. Owing to the sharp edge of the airfoil, there occurs a dramatic abrupt jump in the pressure circulation on the upper region of the airfoil profile. When the sharp rim of the profile is replaced with a round and smooth profile, the pre ssure jump declines greatly and the resultant pressure distribution on the improved surface smoothens with a diminished extreme value (Norwazan, Khalid, Zulkiffli, Nadia, Fuad, 2012). The streamlines observed on the upper surface of the airfoil occurs at close proximity than the ones observed at the bottom of the airfoil. This indicates a greater pressure on the airfoils lower wall. The streamlines develops closeness on the upper area of the airfoil with an increase in the fan velocity. Additionally, the airfoil surface velocity gradient increases with increasing Reynolds number due to an elevated skin friction coefficient. Gao, Cai, Li, Jiang, and Lee (2016) and Ouchene, Khalij, Tanire, and Arcen (2015) cite that the incongruity that occurs between the experimental and numerical values are due to uncertainty in the experimental measurements and the convergence exactitude that occurs in the numerical approach. Furthermore, there is the reality of the 3D dimensional profile of the f low that is different from the theoretical 2D solution in the computational fluid dynamics (Haryanto, Utomo, Sinaga, Rosalia, Putra, 2014). Conclusion From the experiments and numerical analyses carried out, several factors determine the value of the lift and drag coefficients obtained. As observed in the paper, airfoil develops a great lift at minimum frontward velocities and evidences an outstanding potential for both the backdrops of vertical landing and takeoff and that of fast landing and takeoff. Also, as observed in the experimental results, the pitching moment and lift constants of the airfoil elevates and the consequential drag coefficient downslopes as the revolutionary velocity of the airfoil fan diminishes. In aeromechanics, the pitching moment constant improvement reflects that the aircraft attains a relatively better stability at superior rotational velocities. Additionally, experiments reflect that the streamline coefficients decay as the Reynolds number reduces for the free stream. Moreover, the field of flow above the airfoil can most excellently be observed using the computational fluid dynamics method and then dr awing parallels of the results with the experimental values realized. In most scenarios, the numerical data corresponds with the values achieved by undertaking the experiments. Reference List Askari, S. Shojaeefard, M., 2012. Experimental and numerical study of an airfoil in combination with a cross flow fan.Proceedings Of The Institution Of Mechanical Engineers, Part G: Journal Of Aerospace Engineering,227(7), 1173-1187. https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0954410012452213 Bhat, S. Govardhan, R., 2013.Stall flutter of NACA 0012 airfoil at low Reynolds numbers.Dx.doi.org. Retrieved 2 September 2016, from https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfluidstructs.2013.04.001 Dedeic, A., 2014.Experimental and numerical study on harmonically pitching airfoils with morphing trailing edge flaps(Masters). Technical University of Denmark. Dimchev, M., 2012.Experimental and numerical study on wingtip mounted propellers for low aspect ratio UAV design(Masters). Delft University of Technology. Gao, Z., Cai, J., Li, J., Jiang, C., Lee, C., 2016. 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